Tactica
Tactica Hellenistic Asclepiodotus GreekList of chapters. THE TACTICS OF ASCLEPIODOTUS THE PHILOSOPHER: CHAPTERS
On the differences among phalanxes.
On the number and the names of the parts of the phalanx of the hoplites.
On the arrangement of the men, both that which applies to the whole phalanx and that which applies to its parts.
On their intervals.
On the arms, their proportion and their form.
On the phalanx of the light-armed troops and of the peltasts, and on the order and names of its parts.
On the phalanx of the cavalry and the names both of the whole and of its parts.
On chariots.
On elephants.
On the names common to the movements.
On the formations of the units on the march.
On the words of command governing their movement.
Since the complete preparation for war is of two kinds, on land and on sea, we must now speak of that on land. Of this, one part is the fighting force, and the other ministers to the needs of the fighting force, such as physicians, baggage-carriers, and the like. Of the fighting force, one part is infantry, the other is mounted; for the one uses its feet for battle, while the other is carried upon something.
Now of the infantry, one body is that of the hoplites, another that of the peltasts, and another that of the men called light-armed. The body of the hoplites, since it fights at close quarters, uses the heaviest equipment—for it is protected by the largest shields, by breastplates, and by greaves—and by long spears in the Macedonian manner that is to be described. The body of the light-armed, on the contrary, uses the lightest equipment, because it casts its missiles from a distance; it is furnished with neither greaves nor breastplates, but with javelins, slings, and in general with what are called long-range missiles. Midway between these, in a sense, is the body of the peltasts; for the pelta is a kind of small, light shield, and their spears fall far short of those of the hoplites in size.
In the same way the mounted force too has three varieties: one is cavalry, another is achieved by means of chariots, and the third by means of elephants. But the discussion of chariots and elephants, as not well suited for battle, may be deferred to a later point; the cavalry, however, as being numerous and in many circumstances more serviceable in battles, we shall now divide. It has three kinds: one that fights at close quarters, one that fights from a distance, and one intermediate. The kind that fights at close quarters likewise uses the heaviest equipment, sheltering both the horses and the men on every side with breastplates, though it too uses long spears, on account of which it is called spear-bearing and lance-bearing, or also shield-bearing, whenever some carry oblong shields so as to cover the horse as well. The kind that fights at a distance is called that of the bowmen and of the Scythians. Intermediate is the kind of those called skirmishers, who, sharing the qualities of the two extremes, fight some with bows, some with javelins, and use the rest of their equipment, some in the one way, some in the other. Of these, some fight at close quarters after hurling their javelins, and these they call by the special name of light troops; but when they only hurl javelins from a distance, they are called Tarentines.
These, then, are all the differences among the formations, each of which is called a phalanx, comprising bodies of a suitable number and their commanders, so as to carry out readily the orders given, both for the daily drill and practice of the march, of encampment, and of the line of battle, and for the actual engagements.
It is necessary first to organize the phalanx into files; that is, to divide it into files. A file is a number of men dividing the phalanx into proportionate parts; and proportionate are those parts so arranged as in no way to impair the phalanx for battle. For this reason some have made the number of the file eight men, others ten, others twelve, while others have made it sixteen, so that the phalanx may be proportionate both for doubling, for the uses to be described, up to thirty-two men, and for halving down to eight men; for there will be no hindrance to the light-armed men fighting in the rear by hurling javelins or slinging or even shooting arrows, since they will shoot over the depth of the phalanx.
The file was formerly called also a row, a sworn band, and a squad of ten, and the best man and leader of the row was called the file-leader, the last the file-closer. Later, when the row was reorganized, it had different names for its parts: the half was named the half-file and also the third-part—the one term with reference to the number of sixteen men, the other with reference to that of twelve—and the leader was called the half-file-leader and the third-part-leader; and the fourth was called the sworn section, and its leader the section-commander.
The leader is also called the front-rank man, and the one who follows him the rear-rank man, so that throughout the whole row there is first a front-rank man, then a rear-rank man, then again a front-rank man, then a rear-rank man, and so on alternately down to the file-closer, as is written below: front-rank man (file-leader); rear-rank man; front-rank man; rear-rank man; front-rank man; rear-rank man; front-rank man; rear-rank man; front-rank man; rear-rank man (file-closer)—the men beside them being called flank-men. Whenever file is placed beside file,
so that file-leader stands beside file-leader, file-closer beside file-closer, and those in between beside their yoke-fellows, this arrangement will be a joining of files; and the yoke-fellows of the files, whether front-rank men or rear-rank men, since they stand parallel, will be called flank-men.
The joining of all the files together is the phalanx, of which the rank of the file-leaders is called the front, the length, the face, the mouth, the line of battle, the first file, and the first rank. The row of the rear-rank men lying behind this, along the length of the phalanx, is the second rank; the one parallel to it and beneath it the third; the rank beneath this is the fourth, and likewise the fifth, the sixth, and so on down to the file-closer. In general, everything behind the front of the phalanx is called the depth, and the row from file-leader to file-closer is the file in depth.
Those who are placed in a straight line in this direction are said to be "in file," and those in the row along the length to be "in rank." When the phalanx is divided into two along its length, each half is called a wing, right and left, and this division into two is called the navel and the juncture.
How large the number of the phalanx ought to be it is not reasonable to lay down; for the number of the multitude must be determined according to the preparation that each man has, except that it must in every case be suitable for the transformations of the formations—I mean the contractions and the increases. For this reason one should rather choose the evenly-even numbers, as being capable of division down to unity; and you will find that most of the writers on tactics have made the phalanx of the hoplites sixteen thousand three hundred and eighty-four, as being divisible by halves down to unity, and the phalanx of the light-armed half of this. Let it then be assumed by us too that the phalanx consists of this number of men, and the file of sixteen.
Now two files will be a double-file, and the officer over them the double-file-leader; double this number will be a quadruple-file, and the officer over them the quadruple-file-leader; double this again will be a company, and its leader was anciently called the company-commander, but now also the centurion; double the company will be a battalion, and the officer over it the battalion-commander.
The supernumeraries were anciently attached to the company, as the name itself indicates, because they were counted outside the company: the army-herald, the standard-bearer, the trumpeter, the aide, and the rear-guard. The first, to signal the command by voice; the second by a sign, in case it should be impossible to hear the voice on account of the din; the third by the trumpet, whenever they could not even see the sign on account of the dust; the aide, to bring up something needed; and the supernumerary rear-guard, to bring back the man falling behind in the company. For when the file was of eight men, the file of eight made a square figure, which, because of its equality on every side, alone of the parts of the phalanx being able to hear the commands equally well, was reasonably named the company; but later, when the file was doubled, the double company made the square, and for this reason the supernumeraries passed over to it.
Double the battalion they named a five-hundred, and the officer over it the commander of five hundred; double this a thousand, and the leader the commander of a thousand; the two thousands they anciently called a wing and a corps, and the leader the corps-commander, but later a division, and its leader the division-commander. Hence double this is called even now a phalanx-command, and also a section of a wing, and its leader anciently the general, but now the phalanx-commander. The double of the phalanx-command, or section, is a double-phalanx and a wing, and the officer over it the wing-commander; and the whole formed of the two wings is the phalanx, over which is the general, having two wings, four phalanx-commands or sections, eight divisions, sixteen thousands, thirty-two five-hundreds, sixty-four double companies, one hundred and twenty-eight companies, two hundred and fifty-six quadruple-files, five hundred and twelve double-files, and one thousand and twenty-four files. (Thus: 2 wings; 64 double companies; 4 sections; 128 companies; 8 divisions; 256 quadruple-files; 16 thousands; 512 double-files; 32 five-hundreds; 1,024 files.)
Both the whole phalanx and its parts are arranged by fours, so that of the four sections the best in valour is stationed on the right of the right wing, the second on the left of the left, the third on the right of the left, and the fourth on the left of the right. For when they are thus arranged, it will come about that the right wing is equal in strength to the left; for the product of the first and fourth, as the geometers say, will be equal to the product of the second and third, provided the four are in proportion.
In the same way we shall also arrange each section, that is, each phalanx-command; for since its half is the division and its quarter the thousand, we shall place the best thousand on the right of the right division, the second in valour on the left of the left, the third on the right, and the remaining one on the left of the right. For thus the divisions too will be equal in strength.
The thousands too we shall arrange in the same manner. For of these the half is the five-hundred and the quarter the double company; accordingly we shall assign the first and fourth double companies to the right five-hundred, placing the first in its right parts, and we shall assign the second and third double companies to the left five-hundred, placing them in its corresponding part.
Each double company in turn, having for its half the company and for its quarter the quadruple-file, we shall arrange on the same principle, so that the companies within it are equal in strength. The like has been done in the case of the quadruple-file; for of this too the half is the double-file and the quarter the file.
The file, however, we shall not arrange in the same way, but rather we shall place toward the front those men who excel in bodily strength, and toward the rear those who excel in good sense; and of those in front, the file-leaders we shall place who surpass the rest in stature, strength, and experience. For this rank holds the phalanx together and is, as it were, the edge of the sword; whence they call "double-edged" those formations that are held together by file-leaders on both sides.
The second rank too must not be much inferior, so that, if the file-leader falls, the man seated beside him may advance into the front and hold the phalanx together. Let the file-closers, both those in the files and the supernumeraries, surpass the rest in intelligence: the former, that they may keep their own files straight; the latter, that the battalions may be in file and in rank with one another, that they may bring back into formation those who desert their post through cowardice, and may compel them to stand close together in the locking of shields.
Now that in this way the parts have been made like the whole, it would follow next to speak of the intervals, both in length and in depth. For three have been devised for the requirements presented by the enemy: the most open, in which each man stands four cubits apart from the others both in length and in depth; the most close, in which each man, with shields locked, stands an interval of one cubit from the rest on every side; and the intermediate, which they also call the close order, in which they stand two cubits apart from one another on every side.
A change is made according to the requirements from one of these to one of the others, and either in length only—which we said is called "ranking"—or in depth—which is also called "filing"—or in both, which is called "by flank-man and rear-rank man."
The four-cubit interval seems to be the natural one, whence no name is even assigned to it; but the two-cubit and still more the one-cubit interval are forced upon us. Of these the two-cubit is named, as I said, after the close order, and the one-cubit after the locking of shields. The close order is made whenever we lead our phalanx against the enemy, and the locking of shields whenever the enemy lead their phalanx against us.
Since, then, the file-leaders set apart along the front of the phalanx are one thousand and twenty-four, it is clear that, when stationed in open order, they will occupy four thousand and ninety-six cubits, which is ten stades and ninety-six cubits; in close order, five stades and forty-eight cubits; and with shields locked, two and a half stades and twenty-four cubits—with reference to which you will also have to make the choice of your ground.
Of the shields of the phalanx the best is the Macedonian, of bronze, eight palms in breadth and not too hollow. The spear, again, is not less than ten cubits, so that the part of it that projects beyond the man is not less than eight cubits; nor again did they make it longer than twelve cubits, so that the projection is ten cubits. By using this the Macedonian phalanx, when standing in close array, seemed to the enemy irresistible. For it is quite clear that the spears of those down to the fifth rank project beyond the front; since those in the second rank, being two cubits behind, make a projection of eight cubits beyond the front; those in the third rank, of six; those in the fourth, of four; and those in the fifth, of two; while five pikes are held out beyond the first rank.
And the Macedonians, they say, by this array of spears, not only terrify the enemy by the very sight, but also embolden each file-leader, since he is protected by five lines of points; and those behind the fifth rank, even if they do not project their pikes beyond the front, yet by bearing down with their bodies make flight impossible for the front-rank men. Some, wishing to make the projecting points of the front even, increase the length of the spears of the rearward ranks.
The light-armed troops and the peltasts will be stationed by the general for the suitable requirements, sometimes in front of the phalanx, sometimes beneath the phalanx, and at other times on the right and left. The first is called fronting, the second under-stationing, the third side-stationing. There are times also when, interwoven with the phalanx, they are stationed man by man; and this too is called inserting, because it is an insertion of unlike troops, such as light-armed beside hoplites. The insertion of like troops, however—such as hoplites beside hoplites or light-armed beside light-armed (for the use of these too will be discussed)—they no longer call inserting, but interposition.
These too, then, will have one thousand and twenty-four files, if they are to extend out together with the phalanx of the hoplites when stationed beneath it; not of sixteen men, however—for their number is half—but evidently of eight.
With these too the body of four files will be a unit, and further the body of two units a fifty; double this a hundred, with which will be the supernumeraries, five in number: the army-herald, the standard-bearer, the trumpeter, the aide, and the rear-guard. Double the hundred is a light company, double this a mercenary company, double which a band, double this a double mercenary company, double which again a host; and when this is put together, the phalanx of the light-armed is formed, which some also call the reserve. Of this there are eight supernumerary men, four double-mercenary-commanders, and the rest band-commanders.
The cavalry, like the light-armed, take their formation for the requirements that arise, and especially the skirmishers among them; for these are best suited to be first in inflicting wounds, to provoke to battle, to break up the enemy's formations, to repel their horse, to seize beforehand the better positions, to recover those already seized, to reconnoitre suspected places, to prepare ambushes, and in general to open the engagement and to share in it; for by their swiftness they accomplish many great things in battles.
Their formations in respect of figure some have made square, others oblong, others rhomboid, and others wedge-shaped, that is, in the form of a beak. In general all call the body of the figure a squadron. The rhomboid squadrons the Thessalians seem to have used first, who were very powerful in cavalry, for the wheelings-about and the wheelings-around of the horses, so that, being able to turn to all sides, they might not be thrown into confusion. For they stationed the best of the horsemen along the sides, and again those pre-eminent in valour at the angles; and they called the one at the front angle the squadron-leader, the one at the rear angle the rear-guard, and those at the right and left the flank-guards.
The wedge-shaped formations the Scythians and Thracians are said to have invented, and later the Macedonians too used them, as being more serviceable than the square; for the front of the wedge, being narrow, as also in the case of the rhomboids—of which the wedge is the half—made the charging-through easiest, while the leaders too were thrust out before the rest; and the turnings-about were made easier in these than in the squares, since all looked toward the one squadron-leader, as happens also in the flight of cranes.
The square formations the Persians, the Sicels, and the Greeks used, because in these the squadrons could be both in rank and in file at once. Except that the Greeks, varying the squadron with an oblong number, gave to the figure the appearance of a square. For they stationed sixteen men in length and eight in depth, but with double intervals, on account of the size of the horses. Some, making the length triple the depth in number, gave a triple interval in depth, so that the figure was again square—these men, I think, reasoning more correctly. For the depth in cavalry does not afford the same advantage as in infantry, by pressing forward and holding the squadron together, but it can rather inflict more harm than the enemy; for, falling upon one another, they throw the horses into confusion. Whence, when the number is square, the figure must be made oblong, and when it is oblong, if a square is required, the depth must be of three or four horsemen, and the length made equal to this.
Still, the rhomboid seemed more necessary for the manoeuvres, on account of the inclination toward the leader, and because, like the square, it can be both in rank and in file. Whence some so arranged it as to provide for both together, that it might be both in rank and in file; others took thought neither for the rank nor for the file; some for the rank but not for the file; and some the reverse.
For those who chose to have it both in rank and in file at once, the largest rank is stationed at the middle, made up of an odd number, such as eleven, like the one formed of the a's, a's in the diagram below; then on either side of this, two ranks falling short of it by two, in front like the one composed of the b's, behind like the one composed of the c's, so that each of the b's and c's is in file with each of the a's, except the outermost, a and a. Then next, after the b-rank, the one composed of the d's, falling short of it by two; and after the c-rank, the one composed of the e's, also falling short of the c by two, so that each of the d's is in file with each of the b's, except the outermost, and each of the e's with each of the c's, except the last. The ranks at b and c, then, will be of nine men, those at d and e of seven, and likewise the ones on either side of these: the rank composed of the f's and that of the g's will be of five, and those still further on, like the one of the h's and that of the i's, of three. And as a unit remains over, let the man in front, at the k position, be the squadron-leader, and the one behind, at the l position, the rear-guard; the outermost men of the a-rank are the flank-guards, so that the number of the squadron is sixty-one men. And the triangular figure from the middle a-rank to the squadron-leader is called the wedge and the beak. It is drawn below thus:
Those, again, to whom it seemed good that the squadron be in rank but no longer in file, having made the largest, middle rank of an odd number of men as before, such as the rank a-b-c-d-e-f-g, station the ranks on either side falling short by one, like the rank h-i-k-l-m-n, so that h is in file neither with a nor with b, but lies in the space between them toward the front; and likewise k between b and c, l between c and d, m between d and e, and n between e and f and g. For when they are so placed, not one of those in the rank h-i-k-l-m-n will be in file with any of those in the rank a-b-c-d-e-f-g. Likewise they station the rank o-p-q-r-s in front of h-i-k-l-m-n, so that o is in a straight line neither with h nor with i, but in the intervening place, opposite b of the first rank; p between i and k, opposite c; q between k and l, opposite d; r between l and m, opposite e; and s between m and n, opposite f. For thus the rank o-p-q-r-s will be in file with none of those in the adjoining rank, namely h-i-k-l-m-n, but with the one beyond it, namely a-b-c-d-e-f-g. So too the next rank, such as t-u-v-w, will not be in file with the one before it, o-p-q-r-s, but with the one beyond, h-i-k-l-m-n; and x-y-z will not be in file with t-u-v-w, but with the one beyond it, o-p-q-r-s; and the next will not be in file with x-y-z, but with the one beyond it, t-u-v-w. The squadron-leader, a, will be between two and in a straight line with one of those in the rank x-y-z. And by stationing the rear half-wedge equal to this, they fill up the squadron, of which there will be one squadron-leader, one rear-guard (the last man of the two wedges), and the outermost men flank-guards. And it is evident that in such a squadron, even if the continuous ranks are not in file, yet those lying one beyond the other are.
Since it has come about that they are in rank but not in file, this, when it is our concern, is called being in file, if only in the formation we take thought first of the row running by way of the squadron-leader and the rear-guard, such as the row a-...-z, and of those on either side of it, and then of those after these, and so on in succession down to the flank-guards. And there will be no difference in respect of the position of the one that is in rank but not in file; but by our way of taking the formation and by our consideration it will be in file, because those drawn up in file hold one another together, but it will not be in rank, because the first man of the first file, namely a, is not in a straight line, in respect of ranking, with the first man of the second file.
But those, again, who chose rather that the squadron be neither in rank nor in file approved a different arrangement for this position. For they station first, as the face and, as it were, the rank of the squadron, the two sides of the rhomboid running toward the front—a lambda-shaped figure; then next beneath this the side falling short of it by two; then the one falling short of the preceding by two, the man at the middle angle leading the rank; next after this another such, of which the man at the d-angle is rank-leader; and beneath this another, beneath which is one man; and the last is the rear-guard. It is evident, then, that in position it will differ in no way from the former, but only in the way of taking it, as will be clear from the figure.
They station the squadrons, like the light-armed troops, sometimes in front of the phalanx, sometimes beneath the phalanx, and at other times on the flanks. Whence the number of these too they do not call a phalanx, but a reserve, as also that of the light-armed, because they are stationed at the phalanx for the requirements that summon it.
The two squadrons they named a double-squadron-command; the two double-squadron-commands a Tarentine-command; the two Tarentine-commands a cavalry-command; the two cavalry-commands a super-cavalry-command; and double the super-cavalry-command a corps, corresponding to the wing of the phalanx. From the two corps, then, the whole reserve is formed, corresponding to the phalanx.
As for chariots and elephants, even if we find their use a thing of rarity, nevertheless, for the completeness of the treatise, we shall set forth the names. They call, then, the two chariots a yoke-command; the two yoke-commands a conjunction; two conjunctions a super-conjunction; two super-conjunctions a chariot-command; and that formed of the chariot-commands a wing, the double of which is a phalanx. One using several phalanxes of chariots is free to employ the same names. Of the chariots, some are bare, others scythe-bearing along the axles.
In the case of the elephants, the commander of one elephant is called a beast-leader; the commander of two a beast-master, and the body a beast-mastery; the commander of four a super-beast-master, and the body a super-beast-mastery; the commander of eight a squadron-leader; of sixteen an elephant-commander; of thirty-two a wing-commander; and the commander of double this a phalanx-commander, and the body at each command will be named correspondingly.
The kinds, then, of the complete force and the names of the formations within it have been stated. Next it is consistent to speak of the terms which the generals use in re-marshalling the phalanxes. For they speak of a facing, toward spear or toward shield; of an about-face and a wheel; of another, a counter-wheel; of another still, a swing-around and a complete swing-around; of a restoration and a re-establishment; of being in file and in rank, of returning to the upright, of countermarching, and of doubling. They speak also of a leading-on and a flank-leading, right or left; of an oblique phalanx, an upright one, and a slanting one; of interposition and insertion; of fronting, under-stationing, and over-stationing. We shall try to make clear in brief what each of these means.
A facing, then, is the movement man by man: toward spear, the one to the right; toward shield, the one to the left; and in the case of horsemen, toward the rein. It is made on the occasion of the enemy's attacks from the flanks, for the sake of confronting them, or of outflanking, which is to overlap the enemy's wing.
The facing made twice toward the same side, transferring the faces of the hoplites toward the rear, is called the about-face, of which there are two varieties: the one away from the enemy, which they also call "toward the tail," and the one toward the enemy, called "from the tail."
A wheel is when, having closed up the whole battalion both by file and by rank, we incline it as though it were the body of a single man, as around a centre, about the first file-leader—if toward spear, the right one; if toward shield, the left—the whole battalion being carried round and taking over the front position and face, toward spear the one on the right, toward shield the one on the left.
For example, let the battalion be a-b-c-d, and the rank of the file-leaders in it be a-b. It is clear that the right file-leader will be the one at b, and the left the one at a, and that toward spear are the parts at b, toward shield those at a. If, then, with b remaining fixed, we wheel the whole battalion a-b-c-d toward spear, the rank along a-b will be transferred to the position at right angles to it, b-e, and the whole b-a-d-c will be as b-e-z-h, wheeled toward spear and having taken over the front position but the right face.
A counter-wheel is the restoration of the wheel to the position which the battalion previously held, namely that at a-b-c-d.
A swing-around is the movement of the battalion made up of two wheels toward the same side, as b-th-k-l; for after the first wheel, that at b-e-z-h, it occupies the front position but the right face, and looks backward with respect to its original position, a-b-c-d.
A complete swing-around is whenever, by three continuous wheels toward the same side, the battalions are moved to the rear position and the face toward the left, as is the case with b-m-n-x; the position b-th-k-l being toward the front along the right face, and the original position b-a-d-c having fallen back to the rear and looking toward the left face.
And it is evident that the complete swing-around should not be restored by counter-wheeling—for we should need three counter-wheels for it to be restored: that to b-th-k-l, that to b-e-z-h, and again that to b-a-d-g—but by a single wheel, that toward spear, because b-a-d-g has, relative to b-m-n-x, the front position but the right face. And the restoration by wheeling to the original position is called a re-establishment.
The first wheel, then, and the third, called the complete swing-around, are restored in a single way: the former, b-e-z-h, only by counter-wheel; the latter, b-m-n-x, only by wheel. But the middle one of these, b-th-k-l, which we also call the swing-around, is restored in two ways, because its movement by counter-wheel is equal to that by wheel; for by two counter-wheels it will be restored, that to b-e-z-h and that to b-a-d-g, and by two wheels it will be re-established, that to b-m-n-x and that to b-a-d-g.
But if we make the wheel toward shield, the battalion will likewise occupy the front position, but the opposite face, that toward the left. For the battalion a-b-c-d, re-marshalled about the file-leader a remaining fixed, will have the position a-o-p-r by the first wheel; by the swing-around, a-s-t-u; when completely swung around, a-ph-ch-ps; and when re-established, a-b-c-d. Let the difference of the restorations be understood by you as like those toward spear. These things are done whenever the enemy appear along the flank of the phalanx.
To return to the upright is to restore each man to the original position, so that, if they are ordered to face toward spear away from the enemy and then again to return to the upright, it will be necessary to turn once more toward the enemy.
The countermarch is made in three ways—Macedonian, Laconian, and also Cretan or Persian; and this is done in two manners, either by file or by rank. The Macedonian countermarch, then, is whenever, the rank that leads the files keeping its proper position, the rearward ranks take over the front position, the men shifting down to the rear-guard, and then facing about man by man. For example, if, the rank a-b-c-d-e leading the files and remaining in the same place, the rearward ranks z-h-th-i-k and l-m-n-x-o are brought to the front—either by rank, so that z-h-th-i-k shifts first and comes to be at the position p-r-s-t-u, then l-m-n-x-o at ph-ch-ps-w-s, or by file, so that k-o come to be at u-s, i-x at t-w, and so on, namely th-n at s-ps, h-m at r-ch, and z-l at p-ph—then they face about man by man from the rear-guard. This is for the parts p-r-s-t-u and ph-ch-ps-w to be turned away and to look toward the parts a-b-c-d-e, because the enemy have been seen in the rear. And it is evident that by this countermarch the phalanx would seem to withdraw from its proper position and to do something resembling flight, which makes the enemy bolder and those countermarching weaker.
The Laconian countermarch takes over the opposite position to this; for each man faces about toward the tail, the rank that closes the files remaining fixed, such as l-m-n-x-o; for the rest, both z-h-th-i-k and a-b-c-d-e, are shifted to either side . . . of the file-closing rank, in two ways evidently, either by file or by rank, and z-h-th-i-k has the position of Z-H-TH-I-K, and a-b-c-d-e that of A-B-C-D-E. Doing this, the Laconian countermarch presents to the enemy the opposite impression to the Macedonian; for it would seem to rush upon and advance against those who have appeared in the rear, so as to strike them with consternation and to produce cowardice in them as a result.
The one called Cretan and Persian is intermediate between the two; for it takes over neither the rear position of the phalanx, like the Macedonian, nor the front, like the Laconian, but on the same ground the file-leader takes over the position of the file-closer, and the rear-rank men and front-rank men in succession, and . . . marching past, here too in two ways, either by file or by rank, until the file-closer takes over in exchange the position of the file-leader. For example, with a-b-c-d-e leading the files, z-h-th-i-k next as rear-rank, l-m-n-x-o next, and after this p-r-s-t-u—let this be the rear-guard—when a-b-c-d-e takes over the position of p-r-s-t-u, z-h-th-i-k that of l-m-n-x-o, l-m-n-x-o that of z-h-th-i-k, and p-r-s-t-u that of a-b-c-d-e. For thus the countermarch will not remove the phalanx from the same ground, which will be useful to us whenever the positions on either side are inferior.
Countermarches by rank are made whenever the wings of the sections are shifted; for by these the centre of the phalanx is made strong. Sometimes it is not possible to make the countermarches by sections, when the enemy are near, but only by battalion, so that the right of the battalion takes over in exchange the left, and the reverse.
To double is said in two ways: either the space in which the phalanx is, the number of men remaining the same, or the number of the men themselves. And each of these is done in two ways, by file or by rank—that is, in depth or in length. A doubling of men in length, then, is made whenever, between the existing files, we insert or interweave others equal in number to them, keeping the length of the phalanx, so that a mere closing-up results from the doubling of the men; and in depth, whenever between the existing ranks we insert others equal in number to them, so that there is a mere closing-up in depth. What is the difference between insertion and interweaving has been stated before.
A doubling of space in length is made whenever we re-marshal the aforesaid closing-up in length into open order, or those who have been inserted countermarch in length so as not to be outflanked by the enemy, or whenever we wish to outflank the enemy. To outflank is to overlap with one of our wings their wing—this is done sometimes when the other side falls short through fewness of men. So that, whenever they overlap on either wing, it is called outflanking-the-phalanx.
A doubling of space in depth is made whenever we re-marshal the aforesaid closing-up in depth into open order, or those who have been inserted countermarch in depth.
Whenever we wish to restore things to the original arrangement, we shall order those who have been re-marshalled to countermarch into the positions they previously held. Some, however, reject such doublings, especially when the enemy are near, and by extending the light-armed and the cavalry on either of the wings they render the appearance of a doubling without disturbance of the phalanx.
From such formations the phalanx becomes sometimes square, sometimes oblong—and either flat, when the length is many times the depth, or upright, when on the contrary the depth exceeds the length. Midway between these is the oblique, which has one wing near the enemy and makes the engagement there, while holding the other at a distance by drawing it back: it is right when the right wing is thrust forward, left when the left is.
Many other figures also it assumes, not only in battles but on marches too, against the sudden onsets of the enemy; for it is divided into parts, sometimes the larger, sometimes the smaller, such as wings and sections, so that in the joining the divisions become sometimes confronting (with mouths opposed), sometimes double-mouthed, at other times like-mouthed or unlike-mouthed. For they watch for the enemy either from one part, or from two, or from three, or from every side—concerning which it has been spoken in what follows.
A flank-leading is called the marching of the phalanx either as a whole or by parts; and if as a whole, it is called flat, when it marches in the flat position, or upright, when in the upright. And if it marches flat, it is either straight, when by file-leaders, or by the tail, when by file-closers; and if it moves upright, and the rank leading the files—which is also called the mouth—has the right side, it is called right; if the left, left. The oblique likewise is left and right, according as it has the projecting wing of the same name; and the convex, concave, and curved—backward or forward—are those having the mouth concave, convex, or curved backward or forward, as the figures drawn below show.
This "upright" and "flat" one must understand not only of the whole phalanx, but also of its parts; for if the phalanx marches by wings, it is either upright or flat, and, whether upright or flat, either by leading-on or by conjunction. It is by leading-on whenever the second follows the first; by conjunction whenever neither precedes the other.
Of the upright by conjunction there are four kinds: for either both mouths are to the right or to the left, and the phalanx is called like-mouthed—the one right, the other left; or the mouths are opposite, and if they are joined to one another along these, it is named confronting, but if along the file-closers, double-mouthed.
Of those marching by leading-on it is possible to make uprights only unlike-mouthed, so that the one has the right and the other the left mouth; for it is not possible for both to face the same way, since the wings would differ in no way from the whole; for which reason the flat ones too will be joined only in this way. For by leading-on the flat ones will be combined either like-mouthed or double-mouthed; for to the file-closers of the leading body sometimes the file-leaders, sometimes the file-closers of the following body will be re-marshalled.
The oblique ones too, when combined, have two varieties; for either the left is stationed in the left part and the right in the right, and the whole is called a hollow-wedge, or the reverse, and it is called a wedge, as the figures drawn below show.
There are times also when they march in four divisions by sections, guarding against the enemy on every side, and there is formed a four-sided figure with mouths all round, sometimes oblong, sometimes square, having mouths on every side, as the one drawn below.
Whenever they march in several parts, the battalions will march either scattered or interlaced. Interlaced is when they march obliquely, making the whole phalanx like the letter Y; scattered is whenever, in the form of parallelograms, they join one another at the angles only, while looking forward with their sides. And the pattern of these will be clear from the figure; and according to circumstances other figures too might arise, fitted to the requirements that come up.
The conveyance of the baggage-train, being most necessary and requiring a leader, is made in five ways: for either it must go in front of the phalanx, whenever it withdraws from the enemy; or follow behind, whenever it advances upon the enemy; or be beside the phalanx, on the left or the right, whenever one fears the opposite parts; or, finally, be led within the phalanx and enclosed on every side when it is hollow, the danger being on all sides.
Such, then, being the number and kind of the formations, it would follow next to proceed to the commands concerning them, in accordance with which we shall be able to form them, to move them, and to restore them to the previous arrangement. For this was still what remained.
Whenever, then, we wish to wheel the battalions toward spear, we shall order the file on the right to remain quiet, and each of the men in the other files to face toward spear, and to close up toward the right; then to return to the upright; then to bring up the rearward ranks; and, this closing-up being done, to wheel toward spear, and the battalion will be wheeled.
But if we wish to restore it to the original position, we shall order an about-face toward shield—what the about-face signifies has been said before—then a counter-wheel of the whole battalion; then, the file-leaders remaining still as at the beginning, let the rest advance by ranks; then let them face about toward what they originally inclined; then let the right file remain quiet, and let the rest face toward shield and, advancing, be restored. For thus each man will recover the formation that he previously had.
And if we wish to wheel toward shield, we shall order the left file of each battalion to remain quiet, and each of the others to face toward shield and to close up toward the left; then to return to the upright; then to bring up the rearward ranks; and, the closing-up being made, to wheel toward shield about the left file-leader, and the order has been carried out.
Wishing to restore it, we shall make each man face about; then let the battalion counter-wheel; then let the file-leaders remain still, and let the rest advance by ranks; then let them face about toward what they originally inclined; then let the left file remain quiet, and let the rest, facing toward spear, advance, until the intervals are restored; then let them return to the upright, and all will have the formation they previously had.
If we wish to swing around toward spear, we shall order two wheels to be made toward the same side; and wishing to restore it, we shall order a further swing toward spear—for from four wheels toward the same side it is restored again—and, these things being done, we shall further order the file-leaders to remain quiet, the rest to face about and to withdraw the rearward ranks, then to face about again; and the right file to remain quiet, and the rest, facing toward shield, to advance and be restored to the original interval; then to return to the upright, and thus it will be in its original condition.
But if we wish to swing around toward shield, we shall give the opposite orders, to wheel twice toward shield . . . and not toward spear, and to use the like procedures. And likewise, wishing to make a complete swing-around, we shall wheel the battalions three times.
If it is necessary to close up the phalanx by the wing, we shall order, on the right, the right file to remain quiet, and the rest, facing toward spear, to close up toward the right, then to return to the upright, and to bring up the rearward ranks. And choosing to restore it, we shall order the rank that leads the files to remain quiet, and the rearward ranks, facing about, to go back, then to face about again; then, the right file remaining quiet, let the rest, facing toward shield, advance, until, preserving the original intervals, they return to the upright.
If it is necessary to close up the left wing, we shall give the opposite orders; and if the centre of the phalanx, we shall make the right section face toward shield and the left toward spear, then order them to advance toward the navel of the phalanx, then to return to the upright and to bring up the rearward ranks, and we shall have what we choose. Wishing to restore it, we shall order them to face about and to advance by ranks except the first, then to face about again, and to make the right double-phalanx face toward spear and the left toward shield, then to follow their leaders by files, until they recover the original intervals, then to return to the upright. The spears must be held upright in the closings-up, so as not to be a hindrance to the facings.
With these same procedures, being useful against the sudden appearances of the enemy, we shall train the light-armed troops also.
. . . some by voice, some by visible signs, and some also by the trumpet. For clearest are the things signalled by voice—though it is not always possible, on account of the clash of arms or of violent winds at the charges; less noisy are the things conveyed by signs; but sometimes these too may be obstructed by the glare of the sun, or the thickness of the air and dust, or even a great fall of rain. For this reason it is not easy to be well supplied, for all the requirements that come up, with signs to which the phalanx has been accustomed; but sometimes, to meet the occasions, it is necessary to devise new ones. Yet it is impossible for everything to coincide, so that the command should be obscure to trumpet, voice, and sign alike.
- The commands given by voice ought to be brief and unambiguous. This would be so if we put the specific before the generic and common terms; for the common ones are ambiguous. For example, we should not say "Face! toward spear," but "Toward spear—face!" so that the men, in their eagerness, may not, when the facing has been called out beforehand, incline some one way and some another, but may all do the same thing together. As, too, we should say not "About-face! toward spear," but "Toward spear—about-face!"; nor "Countermarch—the Laconian!" but "On the contrary—the Laconian—countermarch!" and . . .
. . . "Stand to arms!" Let the baggage-carrier withdraw from the phalanx. Let there be silence, and give heed to the command. Take up your equipment; shoulder it. Open out. Take up the spear. Be in file; be in rank; look toward the leader. Let the file-closer keep his own file straight. Preserve the original intervals. Toward spear—face! Advance! Hold so. Double the depth—restore! Halve the depth—restore! Double the length—restore! Countermarch the Laconian—restore! Wheel—restore! Toward spear—swing around—restore (or re-establish)! And the same toward shield as well.
These, in brief, are the instructions of the tactician, providing safety to those who employ them, but bringing dangers upon those who oppose them.