Letter II

Although I consider it absolutely certain that your presence and the forces which you took with you into those Eastern regions, guarantee that our enemies, the Dutch, who infest those quarters as well as the natives who give them a welcome reception, will be so thoroughly punished that neither the one nor the other will ever dare such practices in the future: still it will be expedient for the protection of our interests, that, when you shall return to Goa, you leave in those parts of the sea a fleet large and capable enough to do the business, and also that you delegate the supreme command of that fleet to Andrea Hurtado de Mendoza, or to any one else whom you shall consider better fitted for this post. I rely upon your affection for me, knowing that in this matter you will do nothing but what will be most useful to my interests.

Given at Madrid the 27th day of January in the year of our Lord 1607. Signed by the king, and addressed: For the king, to Don Martin Alfonso de Castro, his Councillor, and Viceroy for the East Indies.

For the freedom of the seas and the relation of Grotius to the doctrine, see Ernest Nys’s Les Origines du Droit International (1894), pp. 379–387, and the same author’s Etudes de Droit International et de Droit Politique, 2e série (1901), Une Bataille de Livres, pp. 260–272. For an account in English see Walker’s History of the Law of Nations, Vol. I (1899), pp. 278–283.

For an interesting sketch of the illustrious author of the Mare Liberum, see Motley’s The Life and Death of John of Barneveld, Vol. II, Chap. XXII; for an analysis of Grotius’ views on the law of nations, see Hallam’s Introduction to the Literature of Europe (4th edition), Vol. II, Part III, Chap. IV, Sec. III; for an account of Grotius as a humanist, see Sandys’ History of Classical Scholarship (1908), Vol. II, pp. 315–319.

Hugonis Grotii De Jure Praedae, edited, with an introduction, by H. G. Hamaker, and published at The Hague in 1868 by Martinus Nijhoff.

In support of the view that Grotius appeared as counsel in cases arising out of captures made by vessels in the service of the Dutch East India Company, and that the treatise, De Jure Praedae, is a legal brief, see R. Fruin’s Een Onuitgegeven Werk van Hugo De Groot in Verspreide Geschriften, Vol. III, pp. 367–445. The following passages are quoted from this remarkable essay:

“While busy with the sale of the goods [of the captured merchantman Catherine, which had been unloaded in the Amsterdam arsenal], the process of adjudicating the booty before the admiralty court was conducted in the usual forms. Claimants: Advocate General of Holland, the Board of eight Aldermen, and Admiral Heemskerck; . . . on Thursday, September 9, 1604, final sentence was rendered, and ‘the merchantman together with the goods taken from it were declared forfeited and confiscated’ ” (pp. 389–390).

“Hulsius in some measure replaces what the fire at the Marine Arsenal has robbed us of; among other records he has preserved for us in his Achte Schiffart the sentence pronounced in this matter by the admiralty, and of which we have knowledge from no other sources. From it we learn the grounds upon which the claimants demanded the adjudication of the booty. These grounds are the same twelve which De Groot discusses in his book. . . . This concordance can be explained on the ground that De Groot must have had acquaintance with the sentence; but he was not a man merely to repeat what others had before him witnessed. I should be inclined to feel that in the process he had served as counsel for the Company, and that he himself was one of the authors of the written claim upon which the sentence was based. It would not then be surprising if in his book he should develop at greater length and throw light upon what had already been set forth in the claim” (pp. 390–391).

“I cannot state definitely that Hugo De Groot was persuaded by the Directors to write such an argument; I have been unable to discover any evidence to that end. That he was in close relations with the Company, he himself says in a letter of later date, addressed to his brother. Nor can there be any doubt that in writing his work he made use of the archives of the United Company and of its predecessor. If the supposition, which I have elsewhere ventured to make is correct, that is to say, that in the conduct of the case he appeared as advocate for the Company, it would then appear most probable that, after consultation with the directors, he set about writing his book, which was to be a second plea in their behalf” (p. 403).

For the account which Grotius himself gives of the incident, see his Annales et Historiae de Rebus Belgicis ab Obitu Philippi Regis usque ad Inducias Anni 1609, written in 1612, but first published in 1658, Book 1, p. 429.

For a fuller account of the circumstances under which the treatise on the law of prize was written, see Hamaker’s edition of the De Jure Praedae, pp. vii-viii. The distinguished historian and scholar, Robert J. Fruin, after an exhaustive examination of the evidence, informed Hamaker that Grotius was retained by the Company to prepare the commentary on the law of prize. The English translation of Hamaker’s exact statement reads as follows: “Fruin is of the opinion that he [Grotius] undertook this work at the instance of the Company, and that he appeared in it as their spokesman.”

For an analysis of the commentary De Jure Praedae and the circumstances under which it was written, see Jules Basdevant’s study on Grotius, pp. 131–137, 155–179, in Pillet’s Les Fondateurs du Droit International (1904).

Selden’s Mare Clausum was not the only defense of England, nor was the Mare Liberum the only lance which Grotius broke for the freedom of the seas. In 1613 William Welwod, professor of Civil Law at the University of Aberdeen, published a little book entitled An Abridgement of all the Sea-Lawes, in which he maintained the English side of the question, of which Title XXVII, pp. 61–72, deals with the community and property of the seas. Two years later Welwod published a second work, this time in Latin, entitled De Dominio Maris Juribusque ad Dominium praecipue Spectantibus Assertia Brevis ac Methodica.

Grotius prepared, but did not publish, a reply to Welwod’s first attack, entitled Defensio Capitis Quinti Maris Liberi Oppugnati a Gulielmo Welwodo Juris Civilis Professore, Capite XXVII ejus Libri Scripti Anglica Sermone cui Titulum Fecit Compendium Legum Maritimarum. It was discovered at the same time as the commentary De Jure Praedae and was published in 1872 in Muller’s Mare Clausum, Bijdrage tot de geschiedenis der rivaliteit van Engeland en Nederland in de zeventiende eeuw.

Panegyricus 29, 2: quod genitum esset usquam, id apud omnes natum esse videtur.

Vergil, Georgics II, 109.

Vergil, Aeneid VI, 847–853.

Naturales Quaestiones III, IV.

Institutes II, 1 (De rerum divisione, § 1); Digest 1, 8, 4 (eod. tit., L. Nemo igitur); cf. Gentilis, De jure belli I, 19; cf. Code IV, 63, 4 (De commerciis, L. Mercatores).

Vergil, Aeneid I, 539–540.

Vergil, Aeneid VII, 229–230.

Diodorus Siculus XI; Plutarch, Pericles XXIX, 4.

Sigonius, De regno Italiae.

Victoria, De Indis II, n. 1–7; Covarruvias, in c. Peccatum, § 9, n. 4, ibi Quinta.

Numbers XXI, 21–26.

Augustinus, Locutionum IV (de Numeris), 44; Et Estius, c. ult. 23, 4, 2.

Sophocles, Trachiniae.

Baldus de Ubaldis, Consilia III, 293.

Tacitus, Historiae IV, 64.

Andreas Alciatus, Commentaria VII, 130; Covarruvias in c. Peccatum, p. 2 § 9; Bartolus on Code 1, 11 (De paganis, L. 1).

Code VIII, 40, 13 (De fideiussoribus, L. Si Barsagoram).

Nonius Marcellus, De varia significatione sermonum, in verbo ‘occupare’ (p. 562, Lindsay); cf. Connanus, Commentarii juris civilis III, 3; cf. Donellus Commentarii de jure civili IV, 10.

[‘invenire esse’ would seem to be the reading demanded rather than ‘invenisse.’]

Institutes II, 1, 13 (De rerum divisione, § Illud quaesitum est).

Digest XLI, 2, 3 (De adquirenda possessione, § Neratius).

Epistulae I, 1, 44–45.

Pliny, Naturalis historia VI, 22.

Digest XLI, 1, 3 (De adquirendo rerum dominio).

Covarruvias in c. Peccatum § 10, n. 2, 4, 5.

De potestate civili I, 9.

Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 10, a. 12.

De Indis I, n. 4–7, 19.

Vasquius, Preface (n. 5) to Controversiae illustres.

Cf. Osorium.

Institutes II, 1, 40 (De rerum divisione, § Per traditionem).

Luke XII, 14; John XVIII, 36; Victoria, De Indis I, n. 25.

Victoria XVI, n. 27.

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 21; Turre Cremata II, c. 113; Hugo on Dist. XCVI, C. VI (Cum ad verum); Bernhardus, De consolatione ad Eugenium II; Victoria, De Indis I, n. 27; Covarruvias in c. Peccatum § 9, n. 7.

Matthew XVII, 27; XX, 26; John VI, 15.

Victoria, De Indis I, n. 28, 30; Covarruvias on I Corinthians V in fine; Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 12, a. 2; Ayala, De Jure I, 2, 29.

Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 66, a. 8; Silvius, De infidelibus § 7; Innocentius on Decretales Gregorii Papae IX, III, 34, 8 (De voto, c. Quod super his); Victoria, De Indis I, n. 31.

De Indis I, n. 31.

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 24; Victoria, De Indis II, n. 10.

De consolatione philosophiae IV, carmen 4, 7–10.

Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 10, a. 8; Dist. XLV, C. V (De Iudeis), C. III (Qui sincera); Innocentius, cf. note 1, page 17; Bartolus on Code I, 11, 1 (De paganis); Covarruvias in c. Peccatum, § 9, 10; Ayala, De Jure I, 2, 28.

Matthew X, 23.

On Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 4, 66, a. 8.

Victoria, De Indis II, 1.

Castrensis on Digest I, 1, 5 (De iustitia et iure, L. Ex hoc iure); Dist. I, C. VII (Ius naturale).

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 1, n. 10; Lib. VI, V, 12, 3 (De verborum significatione, c. Exiit, qui seminat); Clem. V, 11 (De verborum significatione, c. Exivi de paradiso).

Sermones II, 2, 129–130.

Avienus, Aratus 302–303.

Seneca, Octavia 413–414.

Avienus, Aratus 302.

Digest VII, 5 (De usu fructu earum rerum, quae usu consumuntur vel minuuntur); Extravag. XIV, 3 et 5 (De verborum significatione, c. Ad conditorem, et c. Quia quorundam); Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 78.

Thyestes 203–204 (F. CXXII).

De beneficiis VII, 12, 3.

Ps. Quintilianus, Declamatio XIII (Pro paupere).

Cicero, De officiis I.

Digest I, 1, 5 (De iustitia et iure, L. Ex hoc iure).

Vergil, Georgics I, 139–140 [Tum primum etc. is probably meant to explain the following lines 140–159].

Ovid, Metamorphoses I, 135–136.

Ovid, Metamorphoses I, 134 (exsultavere, Magnus).

De beneficiis VII, 4, 3.

Octavia 431–432.

De officiis I, 21,

Thucydides I, 139, 2.

Duarenus on Digest I, 8 (De divisione rerum).

De officiis I, 51.

De officiis I, 52.

Ovid, Metamorphoses VI, 349–351 (aquis, 349, and ad publica, 351, Merkel).

Digest VIII, 4, 13 (Communia praediorum, L. Venditor).

Digest XLI, 1, 14 (De adquirendo rerum dominio, L. Quod in litore); Comines, Memoirs III, 2; Donellus IV, 2; Digest XLI, 3, 49 (De usucapionibus).

Digest I, 8, 10 (De divisione rerum, L. Aristo).

Cicero, De officiis I, 52.

Institutes II, 1, 1 et 5 (De rerum divisione, § Et quidem naturali; § Litorum); Digest I, 8, 1, 2, 10 (De rerum divisione); Digest XLI, 1, 14 et 50 (De adquirendo rerum dominio, L. Quod in litore, et L. Quamvis); Digest XLVII, 10, 13 (De iniuriis, L. Iniuriarum § si quis me); Digest XLIII, 8, 3 (Ne quid in loco publico, L. Litora) et 4–7.

975, 977, 985 (IV, 3).

Donellus IV, 2.

Digest XXXIX, 2, 24 (De damno infecto, L. Fluminum); other references same as note 1, page 29.

Donellus IV, 2 et 9; also references in note 1, page 29.

Digest I, 8, 4 (De divisione rerum, L. Nemo igitur); XLIII, 8, 3 (Ne quid in loco publico, L. Litora).

Horace, Odes III, i, 33–34.

Digest XLIII, 8, 3 (as in note 1); 8, 2 (eod. tit., L. Praetor, § Adversus).

Digest XLIII, 12, 1 (De fluminibus, L. Ait praetor, § Si in mari).

Pliny, Naturalis historia IX, 54, 170.

Martial, Epigrammata X, 30, 19–20.

De Nabuthe, cap. 3.

Digest XLVII, 10, 14 (De iniuriis, L. Sane si maris).

Cf. note 1, page 31.

Digest XLIV, 3, 7 (De diversis, L. Si quisquam).

Digest XLI, 3, 45 (De usucapionibus, L. Praescriptio).

Digest XLVII, 10, 13 (De iniuriis, L. Iniuriarum, § Si quis me).

Novella Leonis, 102, 103, 104; cf. Cuiacium XIV, 1.

Hexameron V, 10, 27.

Donellus IV, 6.

Joannes Faber on Institutes II, 1 (§ Litorum); Digest XIV, 2, 9 (De Lege Rhodia, L. Ἀξίωσις).

Digest XLIII, 8, 3 (Ne quid in loco publico, L. Litora).

Digest V, 1, 9 (De iudiciis, L. Insulae); XXXIX, 4, 15 (De publicanis, L. Caesar); Gloss. on Digest I, 8, 2 (De divisione rerum, L. Quaedam); Institutes II, 1; Baldus on Quaedam (above).

Baldus, Quibus modis feudi amittuntur, c. In principio, 2 col.; Code XI, 13, 1; Angelus on Digest XLVII, 10, 14 (De iniuriis, L. Sane); Digest VIII, 4, 13 (Communia praediorum, L. Venditor fundi) et 4 (L. Caveri).

C. Quae sint Regalia, in Feudis.

Balbus, De praescriptionibus IV, 5; 1, q. 6, n. 4.

Digest XLVII, 10, 13 (De iniuriis, L. Iniuriarum, § 7, v. conductori); XLIII, 9, 1 (De loco publico fruendo).

Cf. note 1.

Ennius: ‘Nihilo minus ipsi lucet, cum illi accenderit’. Vahlen, Fab. Inc. 398 (Telephus?).

Cicero, De officiis I, 51.

Cicero, De officiis I, 51.

Seneca, De beneficiis III, 28.

Johannes Faber on Institutes II, 1, 5 (De rerum divisione, § Litorum).

Pliny, Naturalis historia II, 69; VI, 27 [(31) Vol. 1, pp. 482–488 Mayhoff]; Pomponius Mela, De situ orbis III.

Pliny, Naturalis historia VI, 20 (23).

Geographica II et XVII.

L. c. XII, 19.

Gloss. on Lib. VI, I, 6, 3 (De electione, c. Ubi periculum, § Porro); on Digest II, 12, 3 (De feriis, L. Solet [Grotius has Licet]).

Digest I, 8, 4 (De divisione rerum, L. Nemo igitur); Gentilis, De jure belli I, 19.

Digest XLIII, 8, 2 (Ne quid in loco publico, L. Praetor ait, § Si quis in mari).

Gloss. on Digest XLIII, 14 (Ut in flumine publico).

Baldus on Digest I, 8, 3 (De divisione rerum, L. Item lapilli); Zuarius, Consilia duo de usu maris I, 3, part. tit. 28, L. 10 et 12.

Victoria, De Indis I, n. 26.

Silvestris, In verbo Papa. n. 16.

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 51.

Donellus, V, 22 et seq.; Digest XVIII, 1, 6 (De contrahenda emptione, L. Sed Celsus); XLI, 3, 9 (De usucapionibus, L. Usucapionem), 25 (L. Sine); Lib. VI, V, 12 (De regulis iuris, Reg. Sine possessione); Digest L, 16, 28 (De verborum significatione, L. ‘Alienationis’); XXIII, 5, 16 (De fundo dotali, L. Si fundum).

Digest XLI, 3, 45 (De usucapionibus); Code VIII, 11, 6 (De operis publicis, L. Praescriptio); XI, 43, 9 (De aquaeductu, L. Diligenter); Digest XLIII, 11, 2 (De via publica, L. Viam); XLI, 3, 49 (De usucapionibus, L. ult.).

Consilia 286; Thema tale est: inter caetera capitula pacis.

Digest XLIV, 3, 7 (De diversis temporalibus praescriptionibus, L. Si quisquam).

Duarenus, De usucapionibus, c. 3; Cuiacius on Digest XLI, 3, 49 (De usucapionibus, L. ult.); Donellus V, 22 on Digest XLI, 1, 14 (De adquirendo rerum dominio, L. Quod in litore).

Code XI, 43, 4 (De aquaeductu, L. Usum aquae); cf. eod. tit., L. Diligenter; cf. Digest XLIII, 20, 3 (De aqua cottidiana et aestiva, L. Hoc iure, § Ductus aquae).

On Decretales Gregorii Papae IX, II, 26, 11 (De praescriptionibus, c. Accedentes).

De praescriptionibus IV, 5, q. 6, n. 8.

On Digest XLI, 3, 49 (De usucapionibus, L. ult.).

Par. 3, tit. 29, l. 7 in c. Placa.; Zuarius, Consilia, num. 4.

Fachinham VIII, c. 26 et c. 33; Duarenus, De praescriptionibus, parte 2, § 2, n. 8; § 8, n. 5 et 6.

Fachinham VIII, c. 28.

Angelus Aretinus in rubr. Digest I, 8 (De divisione rerum); Balbus, l. c., n. 2; cf. Vasquium, Controversiae illustres c. 29, n. 38.

On Digest XLVII, 10, 14 (De iniuriis, L. Sane).

Digest XLVII, 10, 13 (De iniuriis, L. Iniuriarum, § ult.)

Cf. Gloss. eodem loco.

De officiis ministrorum I, 28; Gentilis I, 19 (sub finem).

Auth. Ut nulli Iudicum § 1, c. cum tanto de consuetudine.

Controversiae illustres c. 89, n. 12 et seq.

De potestate legis poenalis II, 14, part. 572.

Digest XLI, 1, 14 (De adquirendo rerum dominio, L. Quod in litore); XLI, 3 (De usucapionibus, L. fin. in prin.); Institutes II, 1, 2 (De rerum divisione, § Flumina, v. omnibus); Digest XLIV, 3, 7 (De diversis temporalibus praescriptionibus, L. Si quisquam); XLVII, 10, 14 (De iniuriis, L. Sane si maris).

Digest I, 1, 5 (De iustitia et iure, L. Ex hoc iure); Institutes I, 2 (De iure naturali et gentium et civili, § 2, v. ius autem gentium).

Digest XLI, 3, 4, 26 (27) (De usucapionibus, L. Sequitur § Si viam); Institutes IV, 6, 14 (De actionibus, § Sic itaque); Ut dictis juribus et L. cum filio, ubi multa per Bartolum et Jason on Digest XXX, 11 (De Legatis I, L. Cum filio; part. I in pr. qu. 3 et 4).

Digest I, 5, 4 (De statu hominum, L. Libertas); Institutes I, 3, 1 (De iure personarum, § Et libertas); Digest XLIII, 29, 1 et 2 (De homine libero exhibendo); XLIV, 5, 1 (Quarum rerum actio non datur, L. Iusiurandum, § Quae onerandae); Code III, 28, 35 (De inofficioso testamento, L. Si quando, § Illud, v. adstringendos); Digest IV, 6, 28 (Ex quibus causis maiores, L. Nec non, § ‘Quod eius’).

Code III, 44, 7 (De religiosis et sumptibus funerum, L. Statuas).

Code VI, 43 (Communia de legatis, Contra L. 2, cum vulgatis).

Digest IX, 2, 32 (Ad legem Aquiliam, L. Illud).

Dist. IV, C II (Erit autem lex); Digest I, 3, 1 et 2 (De legibus), 32 (eod. tit., L. De quibus, cum seq.); Decretales Gregorii Papae IX, II, 26, 20 (De praescriptionibus, c. Quoniam).

Digest XLIII, 13 (Ne quid in flumine publico flat).

Digest IV, 4, 3 (De minoribus, L. 3, § Scio); Vasquius, De successionum progressu I, 7.

Balbus, De praescriptionibus 5 in pr. in qu. 11, illius 5, quaest. pr. Gl. in cap. inter caetera 16, q. 3; Castrensis, De potestate legis poenalis II, 14; Balbus, and Angelus, on Code VII, 39, 4 (De praescriptione XXX vel XL annorum, L. Omnes).

Osorius, De rebus Emmanuelis regis Lusitaniae I.

Digest I, 1, 5 (De iustitia et iure, L. Ex hoc iure); et ibi Bartolus.

Aristotle, Politica I, 9 (1257a 30).

Cf. Covarruvias in c. Peccatum, § 8.

Pomponius Mela, De situ orbis III, 7.

Digest XVIII, 1, 1 (De contrahenda emptione, L. Origo).

Naturalis historia XXXIII, 1.

Aristotle, Ethica Nicomachea 5, 5, 11 (1133a 20): οὐ ϕύσει ἀλλὰ νόμῳ ἐστί; Politica I, 9 (1257b 10).

Dist. I, C. VII (Ius naturale); Aristotle, l. c.

Castrensis ex Cino et aliis n. 20 et 28 on Digest I, 1, 5 (De iustitia et iure, L. Ex hoc iure).

Plato, Sophista 223d.

Plato, Republic II (p. 371) cited in Digest L, 11, 2 (De nundinis).

Politica I, 11 (1258b 22–23).

καὶ ταύτης μέρη τρία, ναυκληρία, ϕορτηγία, παράστασις are the exact words.

Cicero, De officiis I, 150–151; Aristotle, Politica I, 9.

L. c. (1257a 14–17).

De beneficiis V, 8.

Cf. cap. III et VI.

Cf. cap. VII.

Gloss. et Bartolus on Digest XLIII, 11, 2 (De via publica, L. Viam publicam); Balbus 4, 5 pr. qu. 1; Panormitanus on Decretales Gregorii Papae IX, III, 8, 10 (De concessione praebendae, c. Ex parte Hastenen.); Digest XLI, 2, 41 (De adquirenda possessione, L. Qui iure familiaritatis); Covarruvias in c. possessor. 2, § 4; Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 4, n. 10 et 12.

Vasquius, l. c. n. 11.

Guicciardini, Storia d’Italia XIX.

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c, 10, n. 10; Victoria, De Indis I, 1, n. 3; Digest VI, 1, 27 (De rei vindicatione, L. Sin autem, § penult.) L, 17, 55 et 151 (De diversis regulis, L. Nullus videtur, et L. Nemo damnum); XLII, 8, 13 (Quae in fraudem creditorum, L. Illud constat); XXXIX, 2, 24 (De damno infecto, L. Fluminum, § ult.); Bartolus on Digest XLIII, 12, 1 (De fluminibus, L, 1, § 5); Castrensis on Code III, 34, 10 (De servitutibus, L. Si tibi); Digest XXXIX, 3, 1 (De aqua, L. Si cui, § Denique).

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 4, n. 3 et seq.; Digest XXXIX, 2, 26 (De damno infecto, L. Proculus).

Vasquius, l. c.

Vasquius, l. c. n. 5.

Code IV, 59 (De monopoliis, L. 1).

Caietanus on Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 77, a. 1, ad 3.

Aristotle, Politica I, 9.

Hexameron V, 10, 4, q. 44.

In funere Basilii.

Thucydides, Isocrates, Andocides.

Isocrates, Archidamos 51.

Panegyricus 176.

De officiis I, 35.

Polus Lucanus apud Stobaeum, De iustitia (III, p. 362 Wachsmut-Hense); Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromateis; Augustinus, De civitate Dei IV, 15.

Demosthenes, De libertate Rhodiorum XV, 10 (p. 193 R.).

Propertius IV, vi, 47–52.

De civitate Dei V, 1.

Digest XLIII, 14, 1 (Ut in flumine publico navigare liceat).

Digest XLIII, 12, 1 (De fluminibus, L. 1, in principio).

Digest XLIII, 12, 1 (De fluminibus, L. 1, § Si in mari aliquid).

Digest XLIII, 8, 2 (Ne quid in loco publico, L. 2, § Si quis); XLVII, 10, 13 et 24 (De iniuriis, L. Iniuriarum actio, et L. Si quis proprium); Silvestris, In verbo ‘restitutio’, 3 sub finem; Oldradus et Archidiaconus on Digest XLVIII, 12, 2 (De lege Iulia de annona), and XLVII, 11, 6 (De extraordinariis criminibus. L. Annonam).

De civitate Dei IV.

De officiis I, 34.

Digest XLI, 1, 50 (De adquirendo rerum dominio, L. Quamvis quod in litore); Henricus von Gorcum, De bello justo 9.

Panegyric 29, 2.

Georgics II, 109 [Dryden’s translation, II, 154].

Aeneid VI, 847–853 [Dryden’s translation, VI, 1168–1169].

Natural Questions III, IV.

Institutes II, 1; Digest I, 8, 4; cf. Gentilis, De jure belli I, 19; cf. Code IV, 63, 4 [Grotius refers particularly to his famous predecessor Albericus Gentilis (1552–1608), an Italian who came to England and was appointed to the chair of Regius Professor of Civil Law at Oxford. He published his De Jure Belli in 1558].

Aeneid I, 539–540 [Dryden’s translation, I, 760–763].

Aeneid VII, 229–230 [Dryden’s translation, VII, 313–314].

Diodorus Siculus XI; Plutarch, Pericles XXIX, 4. [The Athenian decree prohibiting the Megarians from trading with Athens or any part of the Athenian Empire was one of the leading causes of the Peloponnesian War.]

Carlo Sigonio [(1523–1584), an Italian humanist, in his work] On the Kingdom of Italy.

Victoria, De Indis II, n. 1–7; Covarruvias, in c. Peccatum, § 9, n. 4, ibi Quinta [Franciscus de Victoria (1480–1546), the famous Spanish Scholastic, a Dominican, and Professor of Theology at Salamanca from 1521 until his death. His thirteen Relectiones (De Indis is no. V) were published (‘vitiosa et corrupta’) in 1557 after his death; the 1686 Cologne edition is held to be the best.

Diego Covarruvias (1512–1577), styled the Bartolo of Spain. He should probably be credited with formulating the reform decrees of the Council of Trent. The 5 vol. Antwerp 1762 edition of his works is the best.]

Numbers XXI, 21–26.

Locutionum IV (on Numbers), 44; Estius, c. ult. 23, 4, 2 [Estius (?-1613) was a Dutch commentator on the Epistles of St. Paul and on the works of St. Augustine].

[Grotius refers to the Trachiniae of Sophocles, but probably from memory, for there is no such reference in that play.]

Baldus de Ubaldis, Consilia III, 293 [Baldus (1327–1406) was a pupil of the great Bartolus].

Histories IV, 64 [In connection with the revolt of Civilis].

Andrea Alciati, Commentaria VII, 130; Covarruvias in c. Peccatum, p. 2 § 9; Bartolus on Code I, 11 [Alciati (1492–1550) was made Comes Palatinus by the Emperor Charles V, and offered a Cardinal’s hat by Pope Paul III, which he refused, but he did become a Protonotarius Apostolicus].

[Taprobane was the ancient name of Ceylon. Milton speaks of it in Paradise Regained IV, 75:

“And utmost Indian Isle Taprobane.”]

Code VIII, 40, 13 [Probably Fabius Claudius Gordianus Fulgentius (468–533), a Benedictine monk, one of the Latin Fathers].

Nonius Marcellus, On the various significations of speech, under the word ‘occupare’; cf. Connan, Commentaries on the civil law III, 3; Donellus [Doneau], Commentaries on the civil law IV, 10. [François de Connan (1508–1551), a French jurisconsult, a pupil of Alciati; Hugues Doneau (1527–1591) a famous jurisconsult, who wrote many volumes of commentaries on the Digest and the Code.]

[See note on opposite page.]

Institutes II, 1, 13.

Digest XLI, 2, 3.

Letters I, 1, 44–45 [Francis’s translation, English Poets XIX, 726].

Pliny, Natural History, VI, 22.

Digest XLI, 1, 3.

Covarruvias in c. Peccatum § 10, n. 2, 4, 5.

De potestate civili I, 9.

Summa II. II, q. 10, a. 12 [Thomas Aquinas (1227–1274), one of the most famous of the Schoolmen and Theologians, spoken of often as Aquila Theologorum, and Doctor Angelicus].

De Indis I, n. 4–7, 19.

Vasquius, Preface (n. 5) to Controversiae illustres.

[The Cambridge Modern History, I, 23–24, has a good paragraph upon this famous Papal Bull of May 14, 1493 (modified June 7, 1494, by treaty of Tordesillas).]

[Grotius cites Osorius, but gives no reference.]

Institutes II, 1, 40.

Luke XII, 14; John XVIII, 36; Victoria, De Indis I, n. 25.

Victoria XVI, n. 27.

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 21; Torquemada II, c. 113; Hugo on Dist. XCVI, C. VI; St. Bernard, Admonitory epistle to Pope Eugene III, book 2; Victoria, De Indis I, n. 27; Covarruvias in c. Peccatum § 9, n. 7.

Matthew XVII, 27; XX, 26; John VI, 15.

Victoria, De Indis I, n. 28, 30; Covarruvias on I Corinthinas V, at the end; Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 12, a. 2; Ayala, De Jure I, 2, 29 [Best edition of Ayala is in The Classics of International Law, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 2 vol., 1912].

Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 66, a. 8; Silvius, De infidelibus § 7; Innocent on the Decretals of Pope Gregory IX, III, 34, 8; Victoria, De Indis I, n. 31. [Franciscus Silvius, or Sylvius, or du Bois (1581–1649), was a Belgian theologian.]

De Indis I, n. 31.

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 24; Victoria, De Indis II, n. 10.

On the Consolation of Philosophy IV, 4, 7–10 [H. R. James’ translation, page 194].

Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 10, a. 8; Dist. XLV, C. V, C. III; Innocent, see note 1, page 17; Bartolus on Code I, 11, 1; Covarruvias in c. Peccatum, § 9, 10; Ayala, De Jure I, 2, 28.

Matthew X, 23.

On Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 4, 66, a. 8 [Thomas de Cajetan (1469–1534), an Italian cardinal, wrote voluminous commentaries on Thomas Aquinas, Aristotle, and the Bible].

Matthew XXIII, 15.

Victoria, De Indis II, 1.

Paul de Castro on Digest I, 1, 5; Dist. I, C. VII.

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 1, n. 10; Lib. VI, V, 12, 3; Clem. V, 11.

Satires II, 2, 129–130.

Aratus 302–303.

Octavia 413–414 [Translation by E. I. Harris (Act II, Scene 1)].

Aratus 302.

Digest VII, 5; Extravagantes of Pope John XXII, XIV, 3 and 5; Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 78.

203–204 [E. I. Harris’ translation (Act II, Scene 1)].

De beneficiis VII, 12, 3.

Speech XIII, In behalf of the poor man.

De officiis I.

Digest I, 1, 5.

Vergil, Georgics I, 139–140 [Dryden’s translation I, 211].

Ovid, Metamorphoses I, 135–136 [Dryden’s translation I (English Poets XX, 432)].

Ovid, Metamorphoses I, 134.

De beneficiis VII, 4, 3.

Octavia 431–432 [Grotius here takes a slight liberty with the context].

De officiis I, 21 [Walter Miller’s (Loeb) translation, page 23].

History I, 139, 2.

Duaren [a French humanist (1509–1559)], on Digest I, 8.

De officiis I, 51 [Walter Miller’s (Loeb) translation, page 55].

De officiis I, 52.

Metamorphoses VI, 349–351.

Digest VIII, 4, 13.

Digest XLI, 1, 14; Comines, Memoirs III, 2; Donellus IV, 2; Digest XLI, 3, 49. [Philippe de Comines (1445–1509), a French historian, and one of the negotiators of the treaty of Senlis (1493).]

Digest I, 8, 10.

De officiis I, 52.

Institutes II, 1, 1 and 5; Digest I, 8, 1, 2, 10; XLI, 1, 14 and 50; XLVII, 10, 13; XLIII, 8, 3, and 4–7.

Act IV, Scene 3 (975, 977, 985).

Donellus IV, 2.

Digest XXXIX, 2, 24; other references same as note 1, page 29.

Donellus IV, 2 and 9; also references in note 1, page 29.

Digest I, 8, 4; XLIII, 8, 3.

Odes III, i, 33–34 [Bennett’s (Loeb) translation, page 171].

Digest XLIII, 8, 3; 8, 2.

Digest XLIII, 12, 1.

Pliny, Natural History IX, 54, 170.

Epigrams X, 30, 19–20.

De Nabuthe, cap. 3.

Digest XLVII, 10, 14.

See note 1, page 31.

Digest XLIV, 3, 7.

Digest XLI, 3, 45.

Digest XLVII, 10, 13.

Novels of Leo, 102, 103, 104; See also Cujas XIV, 1.

Hexameron V, 10, 27 [St. Ambrose (c. 333–397), Bishop of Milan, is meant].

Donellus IV, 6.

On Institutes II, 1; Digest XIV, 2, 9 [Johannes Faber (c. 1570-c. 1640) was Bishop of Vienna, and Court preacher to Emperor Ferdinand. He was known popularly as ‘Malleus Haereticorum’].

Digest XLIII, 8, 3.

Digest V, 1, 9; XXXIX, 4, 15; Glossators on Digest I, 8, 2; Institutes II, 1; Baldus on L. Quaedam, in Digest I, 8, 2.

Baldus, Quibus modis feudi amittuntur, chapter beginning In principio, second column; Code XI, 13, 1; Angeli on Digest XLVII, 10, 14; Digest VIII, 4, 13 and 4.

C. Quae sint Regalia, in Feudis.

Balbus, De praescriptionibus IV, 5; 1, q. 6, n. 4.

Digest XLVII, 10, 13; XLIII, 9, 1.

[Andrea d’Isernia (c. 1480–1553), an Italian commentator, called often Feudistarum Patriarcha.]

[Probably a misprint for Alvarus (Alvarez).]

See note 1.

[Quoted in Cicero, De officiis I, 51, and here taken from Walter Miller’s (Loeb) translation, page 55.]

Cicero, De officiis I, 51.

Seneca, De beneficiis III, 28.

Johannes Faber on Institutes II, 1, 5.

Pliny, Natural History II, 69; VI, 27; Pomponius Mela, De situ orbis III.

[Strictly speaking, Gaius was the grandson of Augustus, but was adopted as his son.]

Natural History VI, 20.

Geography II and XVII.

Natural History XII, 19.

[A Roman sestertius was about four cents.]

Glossators on Lib. VI, I, 6, 3; on Digest II, 12, 3.

Digest I, 8, 4; Gentilis, De jure belli I, 19.

Digest XLIII, 8, 2.

Glossators on Digest XLIII, 14.

Baldus on Digest I, 8, 3; Zuarius, Consilia duo de usu maris I, 3, 28, L. 10 and 12. [Philippus Zuerius (?—1606) of Antwerp.]

Victoria, De Indis I, n. 26.

Silvestris, In verbo Papa. n. 16.

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres, c. 51.

Donellus, V. 22 ff.; Digest XVIII, 1, 6; XLI, 3, 9, 25; Lib. VI, V, 12 (Reg. Sine possessione); Digest L, 16, 28; XXIII, 5, 16.

Digest XLI, 3, 45; Code VIII, 11, 6; XI, 43, 9; Digest XLIII, 11, 2; XLI, 3, 49.

Consilia 286 [Angelus Aretinus a Gambellionibus (?-1445), a voluminous commentator on the Digest and the Institutes].

Digest XLIV, 3, 7.

[Bartolus de Saxoferrato (1314–1357) the most famous of the Post-glossators, was called by many of his biographers ‘Optimus auriga in hac civili sapientia’.]

Duren, De usucapionibus, c. 3; Cujas on Digest XLI, 3, 49; Donellus V, 22 on Digest XLI, 1, 14.

[The celebrated Italian jurist (?-1420 or 1437) of whom Cujas said: “Si vous n’avez pas Paul de Castro, vendez votre chemise pour l’acheter.” (Note from page 55 of the French translation of Grotius by de Grandpont.)]

Code XI, 43, 4; cf. XI, 43, 9; cf. Digest XLIII, 20, 3.

On the Decretals of Pope Gregory IX, II, 26, 11 [Felinus Maria Sandeus (c. 1427–1503), Bishop of Lucca].

De praescriptionibus IV, 5, q. 6, n. 8 [Johannes Franciscus Balbus, a priest and jurisconsult at Muentz-hof].

On Digest XLI, 3, 49.

Par. 3, tit. 29, 1. 7 in c. Placa.; Zuarius, Consilia, num. 4.

Fachinham VIII, c. 26 and c. 33; Duaren, De praescriptionibus, parte 2, § 2, n. 8; § 8, n. 5 and 6. [Nicholas Fachinham (?-1407), a Franciscan, who taught Theology at Oxford.]

Fachinham VIII, c. 28.

[See chapter XI.]

Angelus Aretinus on Digest I, 8; Balbus, De praescriptionibus IV, 5, q. 6, n. 2; see Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 29, n. 38.

On Digest XLVII, 10, 14.

[Franciscus (?) Accursius (?-1259) (a pupil of the famous Monarcha juris Azzo), with whose name the Glossa Magna is almost synonymous. He was called Advocatorum Idolum.]

Digest XLVII, 10, 13.

Glossators on the reference in note 4, page 51.

De officiis ministrorum I, 28; Gentilis I, 19.

Auth. Ut nulli Iudicum § 1, c. cum tanto de consuetudine.

Controversiae illustres c. 89, n. 12 ff. [Ferdinand Manchaea Vasquez (1509–1566) the famous Spanish jurisconsult, who held many high honors of the realm].

De potestate legis poenalis II, 14, part 572 [Alphonse de Castro (?-1558). Theologian at Salamanca, confessor to the Emperor Charles V.].

Digest XLI, 1, 14; XLI, 3; Institutes II, 1, 2; Digest XLIV, 3, 7; XLVII, 10, 14.

Digest I, 1, 5; Institutes I, 2, § 2.

Digest XLI, 3, 4, 26 (27); Institutes IV, 6, 14; Bartolus and Jason on Digest XXX, 11.

Digest I, 5, 4; Institutes I, 3, 1; Digest XLIII, 29, 1–2; XLIV, 5, 1; Code III, 28, 35; Digest IV, 6, 28.

Code III, 44, 7.

Code VI, 43.

Digest IX, 2, 32.

Dist. IV, C. II; Digest I, 3, 1–2, 32; Decretals of Pope Gregory IX, II, 26, 20.

Digest XLIII, 13.

Digest IV, 4, 3; Vasquius, De successionum progressu I, 7.

Balbus, De praescriptionibus 5, 11; 16, 3; Alphonse de Castro, De potestate legis poenalis II, 14; Balbus and Angelus on Code VII, 39, 4.

Osorius, De rebus Emmanuelis regis Lusitaniae I [Hieronymus Osorius (1506–1580) was known as the Portuguese Cicero].

Digest I, 1, 5.

I, 9 (1257a 30).

Cf. Covarruvias in c. Peccatum, § 8.

Pomponius Mela, De situ orbis III, 7.

Digest XVIII, 1, 1.

Natural History XXXIII, 1.

Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 5, 5, 11 (1133a 20); Politics I, 9 (1257b 10) [Nummus = νόμος. The fact that this is an incorrect derivation does not of course affect the argument].

Dist. I, C. VII; Aristotle, see note 4 above.

Castrensis from Cinus and others on Digest I, 1, 5.

Plato, Sophista 223d.

II (p. 371) cited in Digest L, 11, 2.

Politics I, 11 (1258b 22–23).

[The text here is somewhat expanded.]

Cicero, De officiis I, 150–151; Aristotle, Politics I, 9.

Politics I, 9 (1257a 14–17) [Jowett’s translation, Vol. I, page 15].

De beneficiis V, 8 [Not a quotation, but a summing up of the chapter].

See chapters III and VI.

See chapter VII.

On Digest XLIII, 11, 2; Balbus 4, 5 pr. qu. 1; Panormitanus on the Decretals of Pope Gregory IX, III, 8, 10; Digest XLI, 2, 41; Covarruvias in c. possessor. 2, § 4; Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 4, n. 10 and 12.

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 4, n. 11.

Guicciardini, Storia d’Italia XIX.

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 10, n. 10; Victoria, De Indis I, 1, n. 3; Digest VI, 1. 27; L, 17, 55, 151; XLII, 8, 13; XXXIX, 2, 24; Bartolus on Digest XLIII, 12, 1; Castrensis on Code III, 34, 10; Digest XXXIX, 3, 1.

Vasquius, Controversiae illustres c. 4, n. 3 ff.; Digest XXXIX, 2, 26.

Vasquius, same reference.

Vasquius, same reference, n. 5.

In his Works and Days [The entire passage as translated by A. W. Mair (Oxford translation, page 1) is: “For when he that hath no business looketh on him that is rich, he hasteth to plow and to array his house: and neighbour vieth with neighbour hasting to be rich: good is this Strife for men.”].

Code IV, 59.

Cajetan on Thomas Aquinas, Summa II. II, q. 77, a. 1, ad 3.

Politics I, 9.

Hexameron V, 10, 4, q. 44.

In funere Basilii.

Thucydides, Isocrates, Andocides.

Isocrates, Archidamos 51 [Grotius probably quoted here from memory].

Panegyric 176.

De officiis I, 35.

Polus Lucanus apud Stobaeum, De iustitia; Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromateis; Augustine, City of God IV, 15.

On the liberty of the Rhodians XV, 10 [Pickard-Cambridge’s translation I, page 59].

Propertius IV, vi, 47–52 [Butler’s (Loeb) translation, page 305].

City of God V, 1.

Digest XLIII, 14, 1.

Digest XLIII, 12, 1.

Digest XLIII, 12, 1.

Digest XLIII, 8, 2; XLVII, 10, 13 and 24; Silvestris, on the word ‘restitutio’; Oldradus and Archidiaconus on Digest XLVIII, 12, 2, and XLVII, 11, 6 [Oldrado de Ponte (?-1335), a Bologna canonist. Archidiaconus is probably the Italian decretalist Guido Bosius.]

City of God IV.

De officiis I, 34 [Walter Miller’s (Loeb) translation, page 37].

Digest XLI, 1, 50; Heinrich von Gorcum, De bello justo 9.